Learning outcomes, pedagogical objectives, learning results, competencies... We often hear these expressions when we talk about university education. It can be difficult to find your way around!

Although each one brings a particular nuance, these expressions are often used as synonyms. At the UNIGE, we use the expression learning outcomes to designate the effects of learning on the student.

Learning outcomes are formulated as "can do statements": they state what a person knows, understands and/or can demonstrate at the end of a learning process (CRUS, 2012). They thus express the minimum requirements for the successful completion of a course, module or program. In principle, they should always be defined when an assessment of learning is planned (CRUS, 2012).

Learning may be targeted at the cognitive, affective, and/or psychomotor level (Berthiaume & Daele, 2013; Kennedy, 2007). For example, a person may be expected to be able to perform new intellectual tasks, adhere to certain values, or develop dexterity. Often these three types of learning are interrelated.

Why do we talk so much about learning outcomes?

Traditionally, the basic element for organizing the university training was the input: what content and know-how did we want to transmit?

Since the Bologna reform, the university academic training has focused on the competencies developed by students. From now on, the focus is on the outcomes: what results do we want to achieve in terms of learning? This is why we are talking more and more about learning outcomes.

This new logic changes the way we think about teaching and learning at the university. Knowledge does not disappear in this approach, quite the contrary: it is a resource that people can mobilize to act in complex situations that they encounter in their civic, academic or professional lives (Roegiers, 2012).

What is the context for the learning outcomes?

Throughout the European Higher Education Area, there is a consensus on the specific and generic competences to be acquired at Bachelor, Master and Doctorate levels. These descriptors constitute the European Qualifications Framework.

Here, there is a Qualifications Framework for the Swiss Higher Education Area (nqf.ch-HS) which is based on the European descriptors. Since 2011, it serves as a reference for describing and organizing study programs in Switzerland.

The descriptors in the national framework list the outcomes that are expected for each cycle of study. They are organized into five categories:

• Knowledge and Understanding
• Application of knowledge and understanding
• Ability to make judgments
• Communication skills
• Independent learning skills.

These are generic descriptors, i.e. independent of disciplines. They need to be developed and adapted for each program. According to the CRUS (Bologna Monitoring 2012-2014), the organization of training programs with reference to these descriptors is one of the priorities for Swiss universities.

The nqf.ch-HS provides you with guidelines for developing and describing your study programs and courses. Consult our summary table or the complete version on the swissuniversities website.

Several benefits are associated with learning outcomes. Here is a summary based on the literature consulted (see the "Tools and Resources" tab):

They enable communication about programs

Using learning outcomes means adopting a common language that increases the transparency of university education and the readability of degrees (Lemenu & Heinen, 2015). This promotes the mobility and employability of individuals, as well as their lifelong learning process (European Commission, 2011).

Learning outcomes are also a communication tool both internally (among academic officials, the teaching staff and the student body) and externally (target audience, professional circles, other institutions).

They facilitate educational planning

Learning objectives facilitate educational planning by acting as a common thread throughout the course. They thus make it possible to design teaching according to the principle of constructive alignment. This consists of seeking an alignment between:

• the learning objectives desired
• the activities that allow students to practice achieving these objectives
• the activities that allow for the evaluation of whether these objectives have been achieved (Biggs & Tang, 2011).

They contribute to higher quality learning

Studies have shown that when learning outcomes, pedagogical activities, and evaluation of learning are aligned with each other, it improves the quality of learning (Biggs & Tang, 2011; Gross Davis, 2009). In particular, the empirical evidence identified by Biggs (2014) tends to associate constructive alignmen with:

• higher levels of learning
• better performance on assessments
• a tendency to use a deep rather than surface approach to learning
• greater student engagement and satisfaction.

They facilitate the exercise of educational leadership

Academic officials can thus:

• organize the training within an established framework
• allocate courses, content, ECTS, etc. on a transparent basis
• verify the internal coherence of programs and courses on an objective basis.

They guide the teacher's actions

Thanks to the learning outcomes, the teacher can:

• have reference points for planning their teaching
• make their expectations clear to students
• coordinate more easily with colleagues.

They are benchmarks for the student

The learner can use the learning outcomes to:

• give meaning to his or her studies and commit to them with motivation
• develop learning strategies adapted to reach the desired outcomes
• have their achievements easily recognized (mobility, employment, further studies).

They allow for a commitment to a program-based approach

Defining learning outcomes is a first step that allows us to engage in a program-based approach, where the teaching team works in synergy to develop the students' output profile. This logic is similar to the Russian dolls that fit together (Sylvestre & Berthiaume, 2013):

• the activities offered to students are linked to one or more learning outcomes defined at the teaching level
• the lessons are linked to one or more learning outcomes defined at the program level (output profile).

To learn more about the program-based approach

According to CRUS (2012), learning outcomes must be formulated for each learning period. They must therefore be written at the level of courses, modules and study programs.

Tips for writing learning outcomes

Here are some general recommendations in the form of a checklist for writing learning outcomes. These recommendations are based on the experience of the SEA team and are supported by the references listed in the "Tools and resources" tab.

Do my learning objectives:

• Do they take the student's perspective? The statement may begin with a formula such as "At the end of the (program, instruction), the student should be able to..., able to..., able to...". It should describe the desired effect on the learner.
   
• Do they use an action verb? The verb that describes the most important activity the learner must perform is preferred. Action verbs make it possible to define learning outcomes that are more easily observable and measurable. Indeed, it is difficult to observe if a person has "understood" a theory. It is easier to verify if they can "explain" the theory.
   
• Do they describe a concrete and complex task/situation to solve? Learning outcomes state an activity that the student must perform in relation to the content. Roegiers (2012) gives examples of complex tasks: making a personal production, finding a solution, planning an action, producing an argument, problematizing, formulating a hypothesis, dealing with a research question...
   
• Do they specify the conditions for carrying out the activity? The statements specify the "how" (in what context, with what resources, with what degree of autonomy, etc.) and/or the "why" (with what purpose, with what goal) of the tasks to be performed.
   
• Are the number of tasks realistic in relation to the length of the learning period? The statements should not be too numerous. It is preferable to target the essential learnings that will be assessed. It is generally recommended to define between 5 and 12 for a program of study (Lemenu & Heinen, 2015), and between 6 and 9 for a module (Kennedy, 2007).
   
• Are they clear? It is important that statements are understood in the same way by all people. Writing short statements that focus on a single activity is one way to do this. Having someone else review them is also a good idea.

Examples

"At the end of the Master's degree in biology, the student will be able to make a critical judgment on the current results of scientific research in biology, taking into account the diversity of positions expressed in his/her field of specialization."

"Upon completion of the Biodiversity course, the student will be able to propose hypotheses that can explain the diversification history of a taxonomic group given a range of observations."

Here are a few more tips and examples to help with their formulation.

Tips for writing program learning outcomes

Imagine the ideal graduate and compare it to the person who has not yet started the program. What can the graduate do differently or more? What assets can he or she bring to the table to find a job (academic or otherwise) or to continue his or her education?

Draw on real-life situations related to your discipline. Ask yourself what personal, professional, relational, communication, organizational and reflective skills would be needed to act in these situations (Prégent, Bernard, & Kozanitis, 2009).

Conduct dual validation of learning outcomes (Lemenu & Heinen, 2015):

• internal validation can be done by the student body, the teaching team, section, department, faculty councils, etc. This process aims to establish a consensus around the desired objectives;
• external validation may involve the participation of professionals, alumni, experts in the field or in university pedagogy. It aims to ensure that the objectives are relevant.

You can invite the different groups to participate in the discussions and in the writing of the learning outcomes. You can also ask for their feedback on a proposal developed by a committee.

Consult available frameworks and models, such as the National Qualifications Framework (see our summary table), the European Tuning project and the CRUS pilot project.

Examples

• Bachelor's and Master's degrees in Biology at UNIGE
• Doctorate in Humanities in Switzerland

Tips for writing the learning outcomes of a course or a module

Ask yourself what your students will be able to do at the end of the semester (or year) that they were not able to do before taking your course or module: in other words, determine the added value of the teaching (Berthiaume & Daele, 2013).

Translate your intentions ("my course aims to...") into targets to be achieved by the student ("you will be able to..."). To do this, it is useful to identify the type and level of learning that is intended. Taxonomies of learning objectives can be used to guide this step (Kennedy, 2007). You can use examples of action verbs related to these taxonomies as a guide.

Examples at UNIGE

"Following the Marketing Research course, students will be able to decide on the appropriate marketing research to answer research questions."

"Following the History of Translation course, students will be able to compare the problems faced by translators in different eras."

Learning outcomes have implications for how to teach and assess your learning. Defining the learning objectives of your teaching is the starting point for planning everything else.

Here are some tips on how to make the best use of learning outcomes:

Use them to organize your teaching

Make pedagogical choices based on your intended goals (Biggs & Tang, 2011). For example, you might ask yourself the following questions:

• What content is essential to achieve the learning objectives?
• How should my students practice to meet these objectives?
• How will I be able to observe the extent to which the objectives are achieved?
• How can I structure the activities so that there is a progression towards the achievement of the objectives?
• How much work will my students have to do to achieve the objectives?

Draw on the action verbs in your goals to design your pedagogical and assessment activities (Biggs & Tang, 2011). This will help you avoid mismatches between "what I aim for," "what I teach," and "what I assess."

Provide your students with complex situations (Roegiers, 2012). Complex situations involve calling on several resources to solve them. You can propose two types of complex situations according to Roegiers: situations that serve to acquire resources and situations that allow for the integration and mobilization of resources acquired separately. Here are a few examples of complex situations: formulating a hypothesis on a new subject, analyzing a practical case, finding a solution to a problem or a question, creating a oeuvre. Complex situations can be used to work on several objectives simultaneously.

Use them to evaluate learning

Give priority to assessing skills in authentic situations (Prégent, Bernard, & Kozanitis, 2009). This means emphasizing the realism and complexity of the situations in which you assess learning. You can simulate the context and conditions of a real situation encountered in your discipline. You can ask questions or request projects that solicit the creativity of your students. If they can memorize the correct answer in advance, it is probably not an authentic assessment.

Use assessment criteria and indicators to evaluate your students' complex work products (Roegiers, 2012). Based on the objectives, what qualities do you look for in their work? What "evidence" do you use to assess whether these qualities are present? The evaluation grid is a tool that can facilitate the evaluation. The ASP team can help you develop an evaluation grid - contact us!

Use them in your exchanges with students

Communicate your goals at the beginning of the course (Berthiaume & Daele, 2013). You can do this orally, in a lesson outline, and on the online platform. You can refer to them when you propose an activity ("this activity contributes to such and such an objective"). You can also announce the objectives of each session ("by the end of today's session, you will be able to...").

Give your students several opportunities to evaluate their achievement of the objectives. Provide frequent feedback. This feedback can be about the results achieved but also about the process (Lemenu & Heinen, 2015). Formative assessment, self-assessment, and peer assessment are good options for organizing feedback.

The materials are available at the SEA department, visit our library to check them out or borrow them.

Berthiaume, D., & Daele, A. (2013). Comment clarifier les apprentissages visés par un enseignement? In D. Berthiaume & N. Rege Colet (Eds.), La pédagogie de l'enseignement supérieur: repères théoriques et applications pratiques, Vol. 1, 55-71. Berne: Peter Lang.

Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for Quality Learning at University (4^e éd.). Berkshire: Open University Press.

Biggs, J. (2014). Constructive alignment in university teaching. HERDSA Review of Higher Education Vol. 1 (July 2014), 5-22. Consulté à l’adresse http://herdsa.org.au/herdsa-review-higher-education-vol-1/5-22

Commission européenne/Centre européen pour le développement de la formation professionnelle (Cedefop) (2011). Using Learning Outcomes. European Qualifications Framework Series: Note 4. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Consulté à l’adresse http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/Using_learning_outcomes.pdf

Gross Davis, B. (2009). Tools for Teaching (2 ^e éd.). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

lnstitut de pédagogie universitaire et des multimédias (IPM) de l’Université Catholique de Louvain (2011). Les Mémos de l’IPM Enseigner en approche-programme n° 20, 21, 22. Consultés à l’adresse https://uclouvain.be/fr/etudier/lll/memos-du-louvain-learning-lab.html

Kennedy, D. (2007), Writing and Using Learning Outcomes. A Practical Guide. University College Cork, Ireland, Quality Promotion Unit. Consulté à l’adresse: http://www.kpmpc.lt/kpmpc/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/A-Learning-Outcomes-Book-D-Kennedy.pdf

Lemenu, D., & Heinen, E. (Éd.). (2015). Comment passer des compétences à l’évaluation des acquis des étudiants? Guide méthodologique pour une approche programme dans l’enseignement supérieur. Louvain-la-Neuve: De Boeck.

Prégent, R., Bernard, H., & Kozanitis, A. (2009). Enseigner à l’université dans une approche‐programme. Montréal: Presses Internationales Polytechnique.

Roegiers, X. (2012). Quelles réformes pédagogiques pour l’enseignement supérieur? Placer l’efficacité au service de l’humanisme. Bruxelles: De Boeck.

Sylvestre, E., & Berthiaume, D. (2013). Comment organiser un cours dans le cadre d’une approche-programme? In D. Berthiaume & N. Rege Colet (Eds.), La pédagogie de l'enseignement supérieur: repères théoriques et applications pratiques, Vol. 1, 103-118. Berne: Peter Lang.

Resources for further research

Chauvigné, C., & Coulet, J.-C. (2010). L’approche par compétences: un nouveau paradigme pour la pédagogie universitaire? Revue française de pédagogie, 172, 15-28. Consulté à l’adresse http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-pedagogie-2010-3-page-15.htm

Tardif, J. (2006). L’évaluation des compétences: documenter le parcours de développement. Editions de la Chenelière.

TUNING Association (2010). Guide de formulation des profils de formation. Dont les compétences et les résultats d’apprentissage des programmes. DG Education et Culture Education et formation tout au long de la vie. Bilbao: Publications de l’Université de Deusto. Consulté à l’adresse http://www.unideusto.org/tuningeu/publications.html

Warnier, P., Warnier, L., Parmentier, P., Leloup, G., & Petrolito, S. (2010). Et si on commençait par les résultats? Élaboration d'une démarche de définition des acquis d'apprentissage d'un programme de formation universitaire, Communication présentée au 26ième congrès international de l'AIPU,17-21 mai 2010, Rabat, Maroc. Consulté à l'adresse https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/fr/object/boreal%3A166153

Online tools and resources

• Learning Objectives Builder

A tool to facilitate the writing of objectives according to Bloom's revised taxonomy, including lists of verbs in English.

• TALOE Webtool

A tool to check your pedagogical alignment: write your objectives and the tool suggests assessment methods aligned to the targeted taxonomy level.